Author: Sophie Groenheijde

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The governmental politics model posits that separation of power does not lead to a division of power. Rather, multiple actors with different agendas have to share power. This means that contrary to the rational actor model, states are not unitary actors. Rather, the governmental politics model believes that the action of states is the result…

Energy Security & Independence

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Availability and Affordability: True energy security means a state has an uninterrupted supply of energy at a price that does not cripple the economy. Diversification: To achieve independence, nations must diversify both their energy sources (renewables, nuclear, gas) and their suppliers to avoid being held hostage by a single hostile exporter. Infrastructure Resilience: This involves…

Anwar Sadat

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Sadat became Egyptian president in 1970 following Nasser’s death. Despite launching the Yom Kippur War to alleviate the trauma of Egypt’s defeat during the Six-Day War, Sadat sought closer ties to the US. Hence, Sadat was open to US-mediated peace efforts when the tide turned against Egypt during the Yom Kippur War. These mediations ultimately…

Political Warfare

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The term political warfare has been used differently throughout history. In the West, US Diplomat George Kennan significantly influenced the understanding of political warfare. In his 1948 memorandum “Organizing Political Warfare,” Kennan described political warfare as the hostile employment of all means at a nation’s disposal short of war.

Augusto Pinochet

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A general in the Chilean army, Pinochet took power in a military coup in 1973. Under Pinochet, approximately 40,000 critics and suspected communists were imprisoned, tortured or killed. Besides political oppression, Pinochet introduced free-market reforms influenced by Milton Friedman. Facing international pressure and a lost referendum, Pinochet handed over power to his democratically elected successor…

Hugo Grotius

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Mare Liberum: Pioneered “freedom of the seas,” arguing that oceans are international territory, a core principle of modern maritime law. Just War Theory: Defined legal and moral limits for conflict, asserting that war must have a legitimate cause and follow specific rules. Secular Natural Law: Argued that law derives from human reason rather than just…

Gamal Abdel Nasser

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Nasser’s presidency (1956-1970) established Egypt as a significant player in the Middle East and saw the rise of Nasserism. A variant of Arab Socialism tailored to Nasser, Nasserism advocated anti-colonialism, socialist policies, and the unity of Arab nations. Nasserism won popularity throughout the Arab world when Egypt nationalised the British-held Suez Canal in 1956. Nasserism…

Belt and Road Initiative

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Launched in 2013, the Belt and Road Initiative is central to Xi Jinping’s foreign policy. Under the Belt and Road Initiative, China provides loans to countries to develop infrastructure. These infrastructure projects combine into a network of five land corridors and a maritime Silk Road. China portrays the Belt and Road initiative as a win-win…

Post-Colonialism

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Post-colonialism investigates how colonial history and narratives continue to influence international relations. Rather than anarchy, hierarchies reminiscent of colonialism are believed to dominate international relations. These hierarchies are reinforced by narratives that portray non-Western countries as fragile, incompetent, and in need of help. Western humanitarian aid often builds upon these narratives, subsequently reinforcing colonial hierarchies.

Arctic Council

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